Alexander of Aphrodisias de Fato 1658 page 7

Alexander of Aphrodisias (; AD) was a Peripatetic philosopher and the most celebrated of the

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

commentators on the writings of

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

. He was a native of Aphrodisias in

Caria Caria (; from Greek language, Greek: Καρία, ''Karia''; ) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Carians were described by Herodotus as being Anatolian main ...

and lived and taught in

Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...

at the beginning of the 3rd century, where he held a position as head of the

Peripatetic school The Peripatetic school ( ) was a philosophical school founded in 335 BC by Aristotle in the Lyceum in ancient Athens. It was an informal institution whose members conducted philosophical and scientific inquiries. The school fell into decline afte ...

. He wrote many commentaries on the works of

, extant are those on the '' Prior Analytics'', '' Topics'', ''

Meteorology Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e. weather), with a focus on weather forecasting. It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agricultur ...

'', '' Sense and Sensibilia'', and ''

Metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...

''. Several original treatises also survive, and include a work ''On Fate'', in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one ''On the Soul''. His commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was styled, by way of pre-eminence, "the commentator" ().

Life and career

Alexander was a native of Aphrodisias in

(present-day

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

)A. Chaniotis, 'Epigraphic evidence for the philosopher Alexander of Aphrodisias', in ''Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies'', , v.47 (2004) pp. 79-81 and came to

towards the end of the 2nd century. He was a student of the two Stoic, or possibly Peripatetic, philosophers Sosigenes and Herminus, and perhaps of Aristotle of Mytilene. At Athens he became head of the

and lectured on Peripatetic philosophy. Alexander's dedication of ''On Fate'' to

Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus (; ; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present-day Al-Khums, Libya) in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through cursus honorum, the ...

and

Caracalla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (born Lucius Septimius Bassianus, 4 April 188 – 8 April 217), better known by his nickname Caracalla (; ), was Roman emperor from 198 to 217 AD, first serving as nominal co-emperor under his father and then r ...

, in gratitude for his position at Athens, indicates a date between 198 and 209. A recently published inscription from Aphrodisias confirms that he was head of one of the Schools at Athens and gives his full name as Titus Aurelius Alexander. His full nomenclature shows that his grandfather or other ancestor was probably given Roman citizenship by the emperor

Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (; ; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from AD 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held var ...

, while proconsul of Asia. The inscription honours his father, also called Alexander and also a philosopher. This fact makes it plausible that some of the suspect works that form part of Alexander's corpus should be ascribed to his father.

Commentaries

Alexander composed several commentaries on the works of Aristotle, in which he sought to escape a syncretistic tendency and to recover the pure doctrines of Aristotle. His extant commentaries are on '' Prior Analytics'' (Book 1), '' Topics'', ''

'', '' Sense and Sensibilia'', and ''

'' (Books 1–5).Donald J. Zeyl, Daniel Devereux, Phillip Mitsis, (1997), ''Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy'', page 20. The commentary on the ''

Sophistical Refutations ''Sophistical Refutations'' (; ) is a text in Aristotle's ''Organon'' in which he identified thirteen fallacies.Sometimes listed as twelve. According to Aristotle, this is the first work to treat the subject of deductive reasoning in ancient Gree ...

'' is deemed spurious, as is the commentary on the final nine books of the ''Metaphysics''.William W. Fortenbaugh, R. W. Sharples, (2005), ''Theophrastus of Eresus, sources for his life, writings, thought and Influence'', page 22. BRILL The lost commentaries include works on the '' De Interpretatione'', ''

Posterior Analytics The ''Posterior Analytics'' (; ) is a text from Aristotle's '' Organon'' that deals with demonstration, definition, and scientific knowledge. The demonstration is distinguished as ''a syllogism productive of scientific knowledge'', while the de ...

'', ''

Physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...

'', ''

On the Heavens ''On the Heavens'' (Greek: ''Περὶ οὐρανοῦ''; Latin: ''De Caelo'' or ''De Caelo et Mundo'') is Aristotle's chief cosmological treatise: written in 350 BCE, it contains his astronomical theory and his ideas on the concrete workings o ...

'', ''

On Generation and Corruption ''On Generation and Corruption'' (; ), also known as ''On Coming to Be and Passing Away'' is a treatise by Aristotle. Like many of his texts, it is both scientific, part of Aristotle's biology, and philosophic. The philosophy is essentially emp ...

'', '' On the Soul'', and '' On Memory''.

Simplicius of Cilicia Simplicius of Cilicia (; ; – c. 540) was a disciple of Ammonius Hermiae and Damascius, and was one of the last of the Neoplatonists. He was among the pagan philosophers persecuted by Justinian in the early 6th century, and was forced for ...

mentions that Alexander provided commentary on the

quadrature of the lune In geometry, the lune of Hippocrates, named after Hippocrates of Chios, is a lune (mathematics), lune bounded by Circular arc, arcs of two circles, the smaller of which has as its diameter a Chord (geometry), chord spanning a right angle on the l ...

s, and the corresponding problem of

squaring the circle Squaring the circle is a problem in geometry first proposed in Greek mathematics. It is the challenge of constructing a square (geometry), square with the area of a circle, area of a given circle by using only a finite number of steps with a ...

. In April 2007, it was reported that imaging analysis had discovered an early commentary on Aristotle's '' Categories'' in the Archimedes Palimpsest, and Robert Sharples suggested Alexander as the most likely author.

Original treatises

There are also several extant original writings by Alexander. These include: ''On the Soul'', ''Problems and Solutions'', ''Ethical Problems'', ''On Fate'', and ''On Mixture and Growth''. Three works attributed to him are considered spurious: ''Medical Questions'', ''Physical Problems'', and ''On Fevers''. Additional works by Alexander are preserved in

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

translation, these include: ''On the Principles of the Universe'', ''On Providence'', and ''Against

Galen Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (; September 129 – AD), often Anglicization, anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Ancient Rome, Roman and Greeks, Greek physician, surgeon, and Philosophy, philosopher. Considered to be one o ...

on Motion''. ''On the Soul'' (''De anima'') is a treatise on the

soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...

written along the lines suggested by Aristotle in his own '' De anima''. Alexander contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (''nous hylikos'') and inseparable from the body. He argued strongly against the doctrine of the soul's immortality. He identified the active intellect (''nous poietikos''), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with

God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...

. A second book is known as the ''Supplement to On the Soul'' (''Mantissa''). The ''Mantissa'' is a series of twenty-five separate pieces of which the opening five deal directly with

psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both consciousness, conscious and Unconscious mind, unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feel ...

.Robert B. Todd, (1976), ''Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic physics: a study of the De Mixtione with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary'', page 18. BRILL The remaining twenty pieces cover problems in

physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...

and

ethics Ethics is the philosophy, philosophical study of Morality, moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates Normativity, normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches inclu ...

, of which the largest group deals with questions of

vision Vision, Visions, or The Vision may refer to: Perception Optical perception * Visual perception, the sense of sight * Visual system, the physical mechanism of eyesight * Computer vision, a field dealing with how computers can be made to gain und ...

and

light Light, visible light, or visible radiation is electromagnetic radiation that can be visual perception, perceived by the human eye. Visible light spans the visible spectrum and is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400– ...

, and the final four with

fate Destiny, sometimes also called fate (), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predeterminism, predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. Fate Although often used interchangeably, the words wiktionary ...

and providence. The ''Mantissa'' was probably not written by Alexander in its current form, but much of the actual material may be his. ''Problems and Solutions'' (''Quaestiones'') consists of three books which, although termed "problems and solutions of physical questions," treat of subjects which are not all physical, and are not all problems.Robert B. Todd, (1976), ''Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic physics: a study of the De Mixtione with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary'', page 19. BRILL Among the sixty-nine items in these three books, twenty-four deal with physics, seventeen with psychology, eleven with

logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...

and

metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...

, and six with questions of fate and providence. It is unlikely that Alexander wrote all of the ''Quaestiones'', some may be Alexander's own explanations, while others may be exercises by his students. ''Ethical Problems'' was traditionally counted as the fourth book of the ''Quaestiones''. The work is a discussion of ethical issues based on Aristotle, and contains responses to questions and problems deriving from Alexander's school.Miira Tuominen, (2009), ''The ancient commentators on Plato and Aristotle'', page 237. University of California Press It is likely that the work was not written by Alexander himself, but rather by his pupils on the basis of debates involving Alexander. ''On Fate'' is a treatise in which Alexander argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity. In ''On Fate'' Alexander denied three things - necessity (), the foreknowledge of fated events that was part of the Stoic identification of God and Nature, and

determinism Determinism is the Metaphysics, metaphysical view that all events within the universe (or multiverse) can occur only in one possible way. Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have developed from diverse and sometimes ov ...

in the sense of a sequence of causes that was laid down beforehand () or predetermined by antecedents (). He defended a view of moral responsibility we would call

libertarianism Libertarianism (from ; or from ) is a political philosophy that holds freedom, personal sovereignty, and liberty as primary values. Many libertarians believe that the concept of freedom is in accord with the Non-Aggression Principle, according t ...

today. ''On Mixture and Growth'' discusses the topic of

mixture In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more different chemical substances which can be separated by physical method. It is an impure substance made up of 2 or more elements or compounds mechanically mixed together in any proporti ...

of physical bodies.Robert B. Todd, (1976), ''Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic physics: a study of the De Mixtione with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary'', page ix. BRILL It is both an extended discussion (and polemic) on

Stoic physics Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed in nature itself. Of all the schools of ancient ...

, and an exposition of Aristotelian thought on this theme. ''On the Principles of the Universe'' is preserved in Arabic translation. This treatise is not mentioned in surviving Greek sources, but it enjoyed great popularity in the Muslim world, and a large number of copies have survived. The main purpose of this work is to give a general account of Aristotelian cosmology and metaphysics, but it also has a polemical tone, and it may be directed at rival views within the Peripatetic school. Alexander was concerned with filling the gaps of the Aristotelian system and smoothing out its inconsistencies, while also presenting a unified picture of the world, both physical and ethical.Charles Genequand, (2001), ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos'', page 6. BRILL The topics dealt with are the nature of the heavenly motions and the relationship between the unchangeable celestial realm and the sublunar world of generation and decay. His principal sources are the ''

'' (book 7), ''

'' (book 12), and the Pseudo-Aristotelian ''

On the Universe ''On the Universe'' (; ) is a theological and scientific treatise included in the Corpus Aristotelicum but usually regarded as Pseudo-Aristotle, spurious. It was likely published between the and the . The work discusses cosmological, geological, ...

''. ''On Providence'' survives in two Arabic versions.Robert W. Sharples, "The Peripatetic school", in David Furley (editor), (2003), ''From Aristotle to Augustine'', pages 159-160. Routledge In this treatise, Alexander opposes the Stoic view that

divine Providence In theology, divine providence, or simply providence, is God's intervention in the universe. The term ''Divine Providence'' (usually capitalized) is also used as a names of God, title of God. A distinction is usually made between "general prov ...

extends to all aspects of the world; he regards this idea as unworthy of the gods. Instead, providence is a power that emanates from the heavens to the sublunar region, and is responsible for the generation and destruction of earthly things, without any direct involvement in the lives of individuals.

Influence

By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as "the commentator" (). His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the

Arab Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...

s, who translated many of them, and he is heavily quoted by

Maimonides Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (, ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam (), was a Sephardic rabbi and Jewish philosophy, philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah schola ...

. In 1210, the Church Council of Paris issued a condemnation, which probably targeted the writings of Alexander among others.G. Théry, ''Autour du décret de 1210: II, Alexandre d'Aphrodise. Aperçu sur l'influence de sa noétique'', Kain, Belgium, 1926, pp. 7 ff. In the early

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...

his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by Pietro Pomponazzi (against the Thomists and the Averroists), and by his successor Cesare Cremonini. This school is known as Alexandrists. Alexander's band, an

optical phenomenon Optical phenomena are any observable events that result from the interaction of light and matter. All optical phenomena coincide with quantum phenomena. Common optical phenomena are often due to the interaction of light from the Sun or Moon with ...

, is named after him.

Modern editions

Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495–1498; his ''De Fato'' and ''De Anima'' were printed along with the works of

Themistius Themistius ( ; 317 – c. 388 AD), nicknamed Euphrades (, "''eloquent''"), was a statesman, rhetorician and philosopher. He flourished in the reigns of Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian and Theodosius I, and he enjoyed the favo ...

at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

Grotius Hugo Grotius ( ; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Hugo de Groot () or Huig de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, statesman, poet and playwright. A teenage prodigy, he was born in Delft an ...

and also by Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli,

Zürich Zurich (; ) is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich. , the municipality had 448,664 inhabitants. The ...

, 1824; and his commentaries on the ''Metaphysica'' by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. In 1989 the first part of his ''On Aristotle's Metaphysics'' was published in English translation as part of the Ancient commentators project. Since then, other works of his have been translated into English.

Bibliography

Translations

* M. Bergeron, Dufour (trans., comm.), 2009. ''De l’Âme. Textes & Commentaires.'' . Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 2008. 416 p. * R. W. Sharples, 1990, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Ethical Problems''. Duckworth. * W. E. Dooley, 1989, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 1''. Duckworth. * W. E. Dooley, A. Madigan, 1992, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 2-3''. Duckworth. * A. Madigan, 1993, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 4''. Duckworth. * W. Dooley, 1993, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 5''. Duckworth. * E. Lewis, 1996, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Meteorology 4''. Duckworth. * E. Gannagé, 2005, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Coming-to-Be and Perishing 2.2-5''. Duckworth. * A. Towey, 2000, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Sense Perception''. Duckworth. * V. Caston, 2011, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On the Soul''. Duckworth. * J. Barnes, S. Bobzien, K. Flannery, K. Ierodiakonou, 1991, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.1-7''. Duckworth. * I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.8-13''. Duckworth. * I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.14-22''. Duckworth. * I. Mueller, 2006, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.23-31''. Duckworth. * I. Mueller, 2006, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.32-46''. Duckworth. * J. M. Van Ophuijsen, 2000, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Topics 1''. Duckworth. * R. W. Sharples, 1983, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Fate''. Duckworth. * R. W. Sharples, 1992, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15''. Duckworth. * R. W. Sharples, 1994, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 2.16-3.15''. Duckworth. * R. W. Sharples, 2004, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Supplement to On the Soul''. Duckworth. * Charles Genequand, 2001, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos''. Brill.

Notes

External links

*
Alexander on Information Philosopher
* Online Greek texts: **
Scripta minora
', ed. Bruns ** Aristotelian commentaries
''Metaphysics''''Prior Analytics'' I''Topics''''De sensu'' and ''Meteorology''''In Aristotelis Metaphysica commentaria ''''Miscellanea''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alexander Of Aphrodisias 2nd-century Greek philosophers Greek-language commentators on Aristotle Roman-era Peripatetic philosophers Roman-era philosophers in Athens Roman-era students in Athens People from Aphrodisias

Life and career

Commentaries

Original treatises

Influence

Modern editions

Bibliography

Translations

See also

Notes

Further reading

External links